After Fifteen Amendment, The Nature and Features of the Constitution of Bangladesh.

After Fifteen Amendment, The Nature and Features of the Constitution of Bangladesh.

Definition of Constitution:
Constitution is a body of rules written or unwritten which determine the organization of the state, the distribution of powers within the principle organs of the government and the relation between government and governed.

According to C.F Strong- A constitution may be said to be a collection of principles according to which the powers of the government, the rights of the governed and the relation between the two are adjusted.

Austin say’s that- The way of life the state has chosen for itself.
According to Lord Bryce- Constitution is the aggregate of laws and customs under which the life of the state goes on.

Classification of Constitution
Constitutions are widely classified into two categories, firstly written and unwritten, and secondly, rigid and flexible.

Written Constitution
A Written constitution is one in which the fundamental principles concerning state administration are embodied and which has, as a specific document been passed by a specific boy. So a written constitution can be produced and shown as a single document the us constitution. Indian constitution, Bangladesh constitution provide examples of written constitution.

Unwritten constitution:
The constitution has not been passed formally as a specific document by a Specific body and the fundamental principles concerning state administration exist in political customs. Judicial decisions and in some scattered document the constitution is an unwritten one. The British constitution Provides the glaring example of unwritten constitution.

Rigid:
The constitution which cannot be amended by ordinary law making procedure but a special procedure like two thirds or three fourths majority is needed, it is called a right constitution. For example Bangladesh constitution.

Flexible Constitution:
The constitution which can be amended by ordinary law making procedure is called a flexible constitution. For example. British constitution is a flexible.

Nature of the Bangladesh Constitution
Bangladesh constitution is the written constitution. It is the adopt by constituted committee. The commute chairmen was Dr. Kamal hosen and there hast 34 member of that committee. There have one preamble. Pour schedule and 153 Articles. There are 15amesdment of the constitution. If any law is contradictory with constitution that time constitution is acceptable and law is voidable. Constitutional supremacy is possible only where the constitution is written and rigid. This constitutional supremacy is also called judiciary the height court of the land is supreme over the legislature

Article 7 states “All powers in the Republic belong to the people, and their exercise on behalf of the people shall be effected only under, and by the authority of, this Constitution. This constitution is, as the solemn expression of the will of the people, the supreme law of the Republic, and if any other law is inconsistent with this Constitution that other law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void.”

Article 26 states that “All existing law inconsistent with the provisions of this part (i.e. fundamental rights) shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, become void on the commencement with the provisions of this part, and any law so made shall to the extent of such inconsistency be void.

Article 65 states that the legislative powers of the Republic shall, subject to the provisions of this Constitution, be vested to the parliament.

Salient Features of the Constitution of Bangladesh
1. Written Constitution: The Constitution of the Peoples’ Republic of Bangladesh is a written document. It was formally adopted by a Constituent Assembly on a specific day (4th Nov. 1972). It contains 153 articles, 1 preamble and 4 Schedules. Members in course of their deliberations. (See page 1 of the Report). I asked Dr. Kamal Hossain if any of them were accepted. He told it was impossible for him to recollect after 26 years if any of them were accepted. He advised me to examine those 98 memorandas. I left no stone unturned to find those memorandas but nobody could give me the trace of those. Though a trace was found in the Record Book of the Constituent Assembly, those memorandas could not found, for parliament building was transferred to the present one and a huge number of documents of the erstwhile East Pakistan Assembly and of the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh particularly those documents which were not tabled in the Assembly or House have been all heaped up in a store room of parliament and these are yet to be ordered and arranged.

2. Rigid Constitution: The Constitution of Bangladesh is a rigid one since on provision of it can be amended by ordinary lawmaking procedure; an amendment can be passed only by votes of not less than two thirds of the total number of members of parliament.

3. Preamble: The Constitution of Bangladesh starts with a preamble which is described as the guiding star of the Constitution. This very preamble contains the legal as well as the moral basis of the Constitution; it also identifies the objectives and aims of the state.1

4. Supremacy of the Constitution: Constitutional supremacy has been ensured in the Constitution of Bangladesh. Because article 7 (2) provides that “This Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and if any other law is inconsistent with this Constitution that other law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void.

5. Unitary Governmental System: Article 1 of the Constitution provides that Bangladesh is a unitary peoples’ republic as opposed to federal republic. Governmental system is a unitary one since all power under the constitution has centralized to a unitary government; no division of power has been provided for in the Constitution unlike in federal constitutions.

6. Unicameral Legislature: Article 65 of the Constitution provides for a unicameral legislature for Bangladesh It is only one House to be known as the House of the Nation. Like Indian legislature it is not composed of upper House and lower House. Laws made by the parliament are equally applicable to the whole territory of Bangladesh.

7. Fundamental Principles of State Policy: Article 8 of the Constitution provides for four major fundamental principles of state policy. They are (i) Nationalism, (ii) Democracy, (iii) Socialism; and (iv) Seculatrism. All other principles derived from these four shall also constituted the fundamental principles of state policy.

8. Fundamental Rights: Part-III of the Constitution provides for 18 fundamental rights. The enjoyment and enforcement of these rights have been guaranteed in the Constitution. The Supreme Court has been invested with the task to protect these rights. No authority can make any law which is inconsistent with the provisions of fundamental rights and any law so made shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.

9. Parliamentary form of Government: The Constitution of Bangladesh provides for a Westminster type of parliamentary system. This form of government, in other words, cabinet form of government is run by a cabinet of Ministers headed by the prime Minister and the cabinet as a whole has to be responsible to the parliament and can remain in power so long it enjoys the confidence of the majority members of the parliament. President becomes a titular head: the real executive power is exercised by the cabinet. The 1972’s Constitution of Bangladesh provided, more or less, all the trappings of parliamentary form of government.

10. Independence of Judiciary: The Constitution of 1972 ensured the independence of judiciary.

Firstly, provision was made that the Chief Justice would be appointed by the president and other justices of the Supreme Court would be appointed after consultation with the Chief Justice (Art. 95). Appointment of subordinate judges and magistrates was also to be exercised with consultation of the supreme Court.

Secondly, a judge could not be removed from his office except by an order of the President passed pursuant of a resolution of parliament supported by a majority of not less than two thirds of the total number of members of parliament. Again, the security of tenure of the subordinate judges was vested in the Supreme Court.

Thirdly, it was provided that the remuneration, privileges and other terms and conditions of service of judges could not be varied to their disadvantages and the salaries of the judges were charged upon the Consolidated Fund of the Republic. Again, the control (including the power of posting, promotion and grant of leave) and discipline of persons employed in the judicial service and magistrates exercising judicial functions was vested in the Supreme Court.

Thus the entire judiciary except some aspects of magistrate’s courts was made independent.

11. Ombudsman: Provisions for the establishment of an ombudsman were inserted in Article 77. To provide machinery to overview the activities of civil bureaucracy, to eradicate corruption in the administration and to ensure the responsibility of the government in a more specific way the role of an ombudsman like a citizen’s defender or watch dog has been successful in some countries. Though the office has not yet been implemented in Bangladesh, the incorporation in the Constitution of such an office reflected the desire of the Awami League to strengthen the functioning of democracy in the country.

12. Responsible Government was not ensured: Though the 1972’s Constitution of Bangladesh provided for the Westminster type of parliamentary form of government it could not ensure, due to some of its repressive provisions, the conditions of responsible government. A cabinet form of government is directly responsible to the parliament in the sense that the cabinet as a whole has to be accountable to the parliament and an individual minister has to be responsible in respect of his departmental administration. In the Constitution of Bangladesh, there is no provision for ensuring the individual responsibility of ministers. Though Article 55 (3) provides that ‘the cabinet shall be collectively responsible to the parliament’ this responsibility cannot be ensured in practice due to the barricade created by Article 70 of the Constitution.

Salient features of the 15th amendment of the Constitution passed by parliament.

1. Caretaker system abolished

2. Elections to be held under incumbent cabinet

3. Islam as State religion and ‘Bismillah-Ar-Rahman-Ar-Rahim’ retained

4. Revival of Article 12 to restore Secularism and freedom of religion

5. The people of Bangladesh shall be known as Bangalees as a nation and citizens of Bangladesh shall be known as Bangladeshis

6. Inserted articles 7A and 7B in the Constitution after Article 7 in a bid to end takeover of power through extra-constitutional means

7. Basic provisions of the constitution are not amendable

8. In the case of a dissolution Parliament by any reason, election should be held within 90 days of such dissolution

9. Increasing the number of women reserve seats to 50 from existing 45.

10. The Supreme Command of the defense services shall vest in the President and the exercise thereof shall be regulated by law.

11. The Chief Justice shall be appointed by the President, and the other judges shall be appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice.

12. The portrait of the Father of the nation  shall be preserved and display at the offices of the President, the Prime Minister, the Speaker, and the Chief Justice and in head and branch offices of all government and semi-government offices, autonomous bodies, statutory public authorities, government and non-government educational institutions, embassies and missions of Bangladesh abroad.

13. Incorporation of historic speech of the Father of the Nation  on March 7, 1971, declaration of independence by after midnight of March 25, 1971 and the proclamation of Independence declared at on April 10, 1971. 

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Mughal Empire:

Mughal Empire:

Introduction:
From the 16th to the 18th centuries India was synonymous with the "Empire of the
Great Moghul". They reformed government, encouraged artistry, and tried to unite their subjects. The last Mughal emperors allowed the empire to break apart, however. As a result, the Mughal Empire came to an end, and India came under British control. The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty that lasted for seven generations. They were descended from the Turkic conqueror Timur Lenk and the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan. The empire was founded when a ruler from Turkestan, Baber, raided India, defeated the sultan of Delhi in 1526, and expanded his holdings. The next notable Mughal ruler perhaps the greatest of the dynasty was Baber's grandson Akbar, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. He made the Mughal throne more secure and greatly expanded the empire. India was difficult to rule because it was basically a Hindu culture governed by Muslims and because of the variety of languages and traditions of its people. Akbar succeeded because he reformed the government to make it fairer and allowed Muslims, Hindus, and Christians alike to practice their beliefs. He was also a great promoter of art and learning. To this day certain works dating from the empire are known by such names as Mughal painting, Mughal glass, and Mughal carpets. They were highly aware of the potential of architecture as a means of

self representation. To express their 'multiple identity' architecturally, they drew from many divers supra regional and regional traditions which they synthesised and 'imperialised' so successfully that they created with the Taj Mahal the universally most widely accepted building.




The Founder

The founder of the Mughal dynasty was Babur, "The Tiger," who ruled from 1483 to 1530. Babur was not fully a Mongol: his mother was descended from Genghis Khan, but his father was descended from Timur. Like his ancestors, he rose from comparatively little to become one of the great conquerors of his time. He ruled over a small kingdom in Turkestan; he expanded his kingdom by attacking Afghanistan and capturing Kabul in 1504. From there he crossed over the mountains into Hindustan and attacked the Dehli Sultanate. With an army of only twelve thousand men, he defeated the Sultan at Panipat, captured Agra and Dehli, and established himself as Sultan. He then attacked a confederation of Rajput states. When he died in 1530 he had conquered all of Hindustan and controlled an empire that extended from the Deccan to Turkestan. Besides his fierce military genius, his conquest of this vast territory was aided by technological superiority. He was the first Islamic conqueror to employ muskets and artillery, and even though these weapons were somewhat primitive, they were more than a match for the armies of the Hindustan.

India was no stranger to Islamic conquest. In the seventh century, just decades after the beginning of Islam, India was invaded by Muslims. In the tenth century, the Punjab was conquered by the Turkish chieftain, Mahmud. In the thirteenth century, the Turk Qutb-ud-din, invaded the Punjab and established the Dehli Sultanate which remained in power until Babur's invasion. Still, the Islamic Sultanate did not protect India from Muslim invasion. In 1398, Timur invaded from the west and utterly destroyed Dehli. Although the Sultanate survived, Timur's invasion left the entire area politically shattered.
At the same time that Babur was aggressively expanding his territory, however, Europeans began their slow and steady invasion of India. Initially begun by the Portugese, the process would be brought to completion by the British who, in the 1850's, annexed India into the British Empire. The history of the Mughal Empire is intimately tied to the history of European expansion and territorial invasions. In 1510, the Portugese conquered the island of Goa off the Indian Coast and a few years later occupied territory on the Indian subcontinent itself. Babur was still in Afghanistan; it would be fifteen more years before he crossed the mountain paths and attacked the Dehli sultanate.

Decline:
After Emperor Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the empire fell into succession crisis. Barring none of the Mughal emperors could hold on to power for a decade. In the 18th century, the Empire suffered the depredations of invaders like of Persia and of Afghanistan, who repeatedly sacked , the Mughal capital. Most of the empire's territories in India passed to the y c. 1750. The Mughal Emperors lost effective power in favor of the British after the 64.1804, the ineffective ormally accepted the protection of th The company had already begun to refer to the weakened emperor as "King of Delhi", rather than "Emperor of India". The once glorious and mighty Mughal army was disbanded in 1805 by the British; only the guards of thewere spared to serve with the King of Delhi, which avoided the uncomfortable implication that British sovereignty was outranked by the Indian monarch. Nonetheless, for a few decades afterward thontinued to rule the areas under its control as the nominal servants of the emperor and in his name. After th even these courtesies were disposed. The rebels declared their allegiance to Shah Alam's descendant,  which led to a protracted  after which the victorious British abolished the institution altogether with transfer of authority to the British crown. The last Mughal emperor was deposed and exiled t where he died in 1862.

Bengal under the Mughals:

After the fall of the ower in 1576, Bengal was under the mughal rule. But the establishment of effective rule took some time. On 19th December, 1578, Khan-i-jahan died and Muzaffar Khan became the governor of Bengal.  brother Mirza Hakim declared himself independent in Kabul, and Muzaffar Khan was defeated by rebels sympathetic to him, and Bengal and Bihar was declared to be his. He sent a subedar (governor) to Bengal, but lots of Afghans took control of parts of Bengal and all of Orissa. In April 1582, Akbar sent Khan-i-Azam as the subedar of Bengal, who won partial victory; but parts of the region remained under Masum Kabuli and Isha Khan, even under the next subedar Shahbaz Khan. In June 1584, Kutlu Khan of Orissa, who had revolted and took over parts of Bengal, was defeated. In 1586, both Isha Khan and Masum Kabuli accepted mughal overlordship. A new administrative system headed by a sipahsalar (later called subedar) started: Wazib Khan was the first sipahsalar, but he died in August 1587. He was followed by Sayyid Khan (1587–1594).

Raja Mansingh (1594–1605) was the next governor of Bengal. He shifted the capital from Tanda to a new town of Akbarnagar. There were again revolts headed by Isha Khan and Raghudeva, cousin of Lakshminarayana, ruler of . porary retirement, and his eldest son Jagatsingh took over. When he died, the younger Mahasingh took over. Because of revolts, Mansingh had to return to Bengal and defeat them in February, 1601; though revolts continued till next year. He also defeated the Mags of Arakan. The mughal empire passed on to nur-ud-din Muhammad jahângîr (1605–1627) who replaced Mansingh by Qutb-ud-din Khan Koka (1605–1607). He and Sher Afghan Istalaju, a Turk Jaigirdar in Bengal, quarreled and both died in 1607. Sher Afghan's wife finally married Jehangir and was called Nur Jahan.

The next subedar was Quli Khan (1607–1608) and when he died, Islam Khan (June 1608–died August 1613). Even at this time large parts of Bengal, under the zamindars known as bAro bhuJA. Examples of zamindars who often revolted are Musa Khan, son of Isha Khan (controlled Dhaka, half of Maimansingh, Rangpur, and parts of Bagura and Pabna), Bahadur Gazi of Bhaoal, Suna Gazi of Sarail, Mirza Mumin (son of Masum Khan Kapuli) of Chatmohar, Madhu Ray of Khalsi, Binod Ray of Chandpratap, Mazlis Qutb of Fatehabad=Faridpur, and Paloan of Matanga. Satrajit of Bhusana and Raja Raghunath of Susanga sided with the Mughals. Raja Pratapaditya was the zamindar who ruled from Dhumghat and controlled Jessor, Khulna and Bakharganj; and was father in law to Ramchandra of Bakla. (Bakla or Bakherganj including modern Barisal was probably same as the old Ramchandra was son of Kandarpanarayan, one of the Barobhuyians who ruled from 1584 to 1598 and was the son of the daughter of Paramananda whose mother Kamaladevi was fifth generation frome married Bindumati, daughter of Pratapaditya, established his capital in Husainpur, and defeated Laksmanmanikya of Bhulua. He was succeeded by his son Kirtinarayan, who was succeeded by his halfbrother Pratapnarayan Ray.) There were also other zamindars like Anantamanikya, son of Laksmanmanikya, of Bhulua and many Pathans, mainly in Sylhet, main among whom was Bayazid Karrani and his associate Khaja Osman, nephew of Qutlu Khan, the last Pathan ruler of Orissa. Also, near Rajmahal, there were Vir Hambir of Mallabhuma and Bankura, Shams Khan in Panchet and Selim Khan in Hijli. Islam Khan, with his gunpowder, horses, and navy, overcame all these zamindars and also defeated Shatrudaman of Kachhar. In 1612, he moved the capital to Dhaka and called it Jehangirnagar. He then Kamrup which was then under Pariksit Narayan, an offshoot of the dynasty ruling Coochbehar which also came under Mughal rule. This was the beginning of true Mughal rule in Bengal, a fundamental change in the economic, religious, social, and political structure of Bengal: it was now one of twelve imperial provinces, ruled by outsiders who did not feel native to Bengal but who felt the borders of the empire as economic and cultural frontiers; and which now had sunni ashrafs that did not intermarry with othe Bengalis but rather claimed Iranian ancestry; and with the sufis that brought a pan-Indian religious outlook to the religion of the masses.

The next Subedar was Islam Khan's brother Qasim Khan (1614–7). He again saw revolts from different parts. The next subedar Ibrahim Khan Fatehjang (1617–24) reconquered parts of Bengal, but he was defeated by Prince khurram (shahabu-ud-din, later shah jahan), who had revolted against his father Jehangir. In April 1624, Khurram started ruling independently over Bengal and Orissa, and soon over Bihar and Oudh as well. He was defeated in October 1624, but when Jehangir died in 1627, after a confused period under dâwar bakhsh (1627–28), he started ruling over the Mughal empire as shahabu-ud-din shâh jahân khusraw (1628–deposed in 1657). He defeated thnd recovered hughli in 1632, and fought with Ahom. His son, murad baksh (1657) was defeated by subedar Shuja (1629? 1639?–58) was defeated by another of his sons, dara, who in turn was defeated by Mohy-ud-din Awrangzîb ´âlamgîr (1658–1707) on the Mughal throne. Shuja fled to Arakan and was assasinated.

Mir Jumla (June 1660–died March 1663) was the next subedar of Bengal. During his time,occupied Kamrup, and Ahom, Gauhati. Then Ahom took over Kamrup. Mir Jumla took over both, but both became independent when he died. The next subedar Shaesta Khan (March 1664–June 1688) was known for his economic oppression, but popularity amongst common man, in Bengal. He reconquered Coochbehar, defeated the Arakan and portugueseand conqueured chittagong.

After this, Khan-i-jahan Bahadur was subedar for a year, followed by Ibrahim Khan. Zamindar Shobhasingh and Rahim Singh revolted during his time. In response Aurengzeb sent his grandson Azim-ud-din, known as Azim-us-san (1697–1712), as the subedar. He suppressed the revolt. He let the europeans fortify their settlements and ushered in the era in the history of bengal

JUDICIAL & ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM DURING MUGHAL EMPIRES:
Judicial & Administrative system during Mughal empires was matchless, excellent and complete in all senses. Let us have a brief perusal of Mughal system as a whole. Though the Mughal Emperors had absolute powers, they appointed a number of officers in the different departments of the Government for the transaction of its multitudinous affairs. The chief departments of the State were: (a) the Imperial House-hold under the Khan-i-saman, (b) the Exchequer under the Deccan(c) the Military Pay & Accounts office under the Mir Bakshi (d) the Judiciary under the Chief Qazi, (e) Religious Endowments and charities under the Chief Sadr or Sadr-us-Sudur, and (f) the Censorship of Public Morals under the Muhtasib. The Diwan or wazir was usually the highest officer in the state, being sole incharge of revenues and finance, The Bakhshi discharged a variety of functions. While he was the Pay-master-General of all the officers of the State, who "theoretically belonged to the military department he was also responsible for the recruiting of the army, and for maintaining lists of mansabdars and other high officials, and when preparing, for a battle he has a complete muster-roll of the army before the Emperor. The Khan-i-Saman or the Lord High Steward had charge of the whole imperial house-hold "in reference to both great and small things". The Muhtamibs or Censors of Public Morals looked after the enforcement of the prophet's commands and the laws of

morality. The other officers, somewhat inferior in status to those mentioned above, the Mir Atish or Daroga-i-Topkhana (head of the artillery), the Daroga of Dak Chowki (the correspondence department). the Daroga of the Mint, the Mir Mai or the Lord Privy Seal, the Mustayfi or the Auditer- General air the Nazir~i-luyulat or the Superintendent of the Imperial workshop, the Mushriff or the Revenue Secretary, the Mir bahri or the Lord of the Admiralty, the Mir Barr or the Superintendent of forests, the or News Reporters the Mir arz or the charge of petitions presented to the Emperor, the Mir Manzil or the Quarter master General, and the Mir Tezak or the Master of Cerensnies. We shall discuss first police, then Judicial and revenue system. (l) The Police so far as the rural areas were concerned, Mughals introduced no new arrangement for the prevention and detection and crimes. These as from time immemorial under the headman of the village and his subordinate watchmen. The system, which afforded a fair degree of security in the local areas with only occasional disturbances in times of disorder, survived till the beginning of the nineteenth century. In the cities and towns, all police duties including the task of maintaining : order and decency, were entrusted to the, whose duties, as enumerated in the Ain-i AKbari, were multi farious (i) to detect thieves, (ii) to regulate prices and check weights measures, (iii) to keep watch at night and the City, (iv) to keep up registers of houses, frequented roads, and of citizens and watch the movements of strangers, (v) to employ spies from the vaga bands, gather information about the affairs of the neighbouring villages and the income expenditure of the various classes of people, (vi) To prepare aninventory of, and take charge of, the property of deceased or missing persons who left be heirs, (vii) to prevent the slaughter buffales, of oxen, bourses or camaels, and (viii) to prevent the burning of women Gainst their win,and circumcision below the age of twelve Sir J.N.Sarkar believes that this long list of the duties in the Ain represents " only the ideal the Kotwali" and not" the actual State But Mailed age gives from personal observation an exhaustive account of the Kotwals duties. It is, however, certain that the Xotwali's main business was to preserve peace and public security in the urba areas. In the districts or Sarkars, law and order were maintained usually by officers like the Faujddars "The faujddar, as his name suggests, was only the commander of a military force stationed in the country. He had to put down smaller rebellions, disperse or arrest robber gangs, take of all violent crimes, demonstrations of force to overawe, opposition to the revenue authorities, or the criminal judge, or the censor". The police arrangements were in some respects effective, though " the State of public security varied greatly from place to place and from time to time.

Judicial System Nothing like modern legislation, or a written code of laws, existed in the Mughal period. The only notable exceptions to this were the twelve ordinances of Jahagir

and the Fatawa-i-A Xat^ a digest of Muslim law prepared under supervision. The judges chiefly followed the Quranic injunctions or precepts, the Fatawas or previous interpretations of the Holy Law by eminent jurists, and the qanunus or ordinances of the Emperors. They did not ordinarily disregard customary laws and sometimes followed principles of equity. Above all the Emperor's interpretation prevailed, provided they did not run counter to theThe Mughul Sperors regarded speedy of justice as one of their important duties, and their officers did not enjoy special protection in thisrespect under anythlng like administrative Law. " If I were guilty of an unjust act, l would rise in judgement against myself" Peruschi writes on the authority of Menserrate that as to the administration of justice he is most zealous gpid watchful. The love of justice of the other Emperors like Jahasir, Shah Aurangzeb has been testified to by some travellers. Though

approach to the emperor through all kinds of offcials obstructions was not very easy, at least two Mughul Emperors, Akbar and Jahagir, granted to their subjects the right of direct petitioning ( which was only won in England after a hard fight). The latter allowed a chin with with is to be hung outside his palace to enable petitioners to bring their grievances to the notice of the Emperor. The Qazi-ul-Qazat or the Chief Qdri was the principle judicial officer in the realm. He Qazis in every provincial capital. The into,well as criminal cases of both the Hindus and the Muslims, the Muftis expounded Muslim Law, and the Mir Adls drew up and aronounced judgments. The Qazis were expected to be “Just, honest, impartial, to hold trials in the presence of the parties and at the Court-house and the seat of government, not to accept presents form the people where they served, no to attend entertainments given to anybody and everybody and they served, nor to attend entertainments given to anybody and everybody, and they were asked to know poverty to be their glory”. But in practice they abused their authority and as Sir J.N. Sarkar observes, “the Qazi’s department became a byword and reproach in Mughul times”. There were no primary courts below these of the Qazi’s department became a byword and reproach in Mughul times”. There were no primary courts below these of the Qazis and the villagers and the inhabitants of smaller towns, having no Qazing over them, settled their difference locally” by appeal to the caste courts or panchyats, the arbitration of a impartial umpire (salis), or by a resert to force”. The sadr_us_sudur or the chief Sadr exercised supervision over the lands granted by the emperors of princes to pious men, scholars and Mons and tried cases relating to these. Below him there was a local Sadr in every province. Above the urban and provincial courts was the Emperor himself, who as the “Khalif of the age”, was the fountain of justice and the final court of appeal. Sometimes he acted as a court of first instance too. Fines could be imposed and severe punishments, kike amputation, mutilation and whipping, could be inflicted by the courts without any reference to the Emperor, but his consent was necessary in inflicting caital punishment. There was no regular jail system, but the prisoner were confined in forts.

Crime and Punishment:
In every society crime and punishment are closely linked, for law demands that criminals should be punished so that they pay the price for violating the law or customs and traditions of society. Types of punishment vary from flogging, enslavement, paying fine and exile to execution and life imprisonment. However, in ancient and medieval times there were no systematic prison buildings. Prisoners were either kept under house arrest or remained confined in a place heavily guarded by authorities, so that the chances of breaking free or escape were minimal. In ancient Greece, we find such a reference of confinement in the case of Socrates who was imprisoned after his death sentence was pronounced. Though his friends planned his escape, he refused to comply and preferred to die as a law abiding citizen. There is also evidence of a system of prison in ancient Egypt. Edward M. Peters in his article ‘Prison before the Prison: The ancient and medieval world’ published in the Oxford History of the Prison: Practice of punishment in western society sheds light on the concept of prisons in the past. There were supervisors, scribes, and guards for the management. Escape was regarded a grave crime and there was severe punishment for it. In ancient Rome, in case of debt, the creditor had a right to imprison the debtor and as punishment he either sold the debtor as a slave or executed him. There was the tradition of domestic prisons where the master could confine his servants and slaves to maintain discipline. In England, King William (1060-86) built the Tower of London for royal prisoners. It was used for centuries to keep members of the royal family, prominent rebels, and high-profile personalities much as Walter Raleigh and Queen Ann Bolyn. There is an interesting story of the bishop of Durham who was imprisoned in the tower on charges of corruption. He spent a great term there because he bribed his guards, who in turn provided him all sorts of facilities. One day he invited them for dinner and offered delicious food and a lot of liquor. When they got drunk, he scaled down the tower by a rope and escaped. Henry II was the ruler who built royal prisons throughout the kingdom. According to rules, prisoners had to pay for their food, bedding and fuel. In case of poor prisoners, charity paid their expenses. It is said that the 18th century is regarded as a period of the birth of the modern prison system in Europe. In the case of medieval India, there was no system of prison. Convicts were flogged, asked to pay fine, executed or put in confinement at the kotwali for a limited period. During the Mughal period, nobles and members of the royal family were imprisoned at the fort of Gwalior. Jehangir writes in the Tuzuk that he sent Ahmad Sirhindi, a religious scholar and Sufi, to the fort in order to reform his religious views. Aurangzeb kept prince Murad there. Some other forts were also used as prisons for aristocrats.
It appears that in the case of rebels or important nobles, houses were used as prison. Prince Dara Shukoh was kept in a house where he was killed on the order of the king. Shivaji was house arrested after his meeting with Aurangzeb. He managed to escape by hiding in a large sweet basket. The other custom was that prisoners were given in custody of some trusted nobles to keep them. If they escaped, the custodian was responsible and faced the king’s wrath. Prince Khusro, who rebelled against Jehangir, was kept in confinement in the palace and would accompany the king everywhere. Later on he was handed over to Prince Khurram, who secretly poisoned him while going to Deccan on an expedition, as he regarded him his rival to the throne. The modern prison system in India, however, was introduced by the colonial government.

Economic system in Mughal Period:
Agriculture has been mainstay of economy in India since time immemorial. During Mughal time also it was not only the largest source of income to state but it was also the source of livelihood to the large majority of people in India. Main crops that were grown were cereals, millets, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, chilli, indigo and betel.

Tobacco and potato were introduced by Portuguese in India during Jahangir’s reign. Ajmer was famous for the best quality of sugar cane. Gujarat and Agra was famous for indigo cultivation.Babur introduced many central Asian fruits to India. During Akbar’s reign Firoz Shah’s Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time. In the reign of Shah Jahan,Nahr-i-Bihisht was built by opening the canal at Khizrabad for irrigation purposes.

The Muslim ruling class preferred to settle in the towns and cities. The artistic life style of Mughal ruling clan encouraged handicrafts, art and architecture and trade in India. The merchants and trader class was divided into big business magnates owing hundreds of ships, rich merchants and traders and petty shopkeepers. Hundi system was developed by shroffs for carrying out large transactions. Trade both intra country and outside India grew tremendously during the Mughal period particularly because of the following factors:

The political and economic unification of India under the Mughal rule and establishment of law and order over extensive areas created the favorable environment for trade and commerce. The improvement of transport and communications by the Mughals.Encouragement given by the Mughals to the monetization of economy. Arrival of European traders from the beginning of 17th century onwards and the growth of the European trade. Decca was the famous centre of muslin and textiles. Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Lahore were the main centers of silk weaving. Surat, Cambay, Braoch in Gujarat was the main ports for foreign trade.

Education System of Mughal Period:
Under the Mughal rule special attention was given to education. During the Akbar’s reign important changes were introduced in the syllabus of education through the efforts of Shah Fathullah Shirazi.Islamic schools were attached to mosques, Khanqah of the Sufis and tombs. Special buildings were also constructed for imparting education. Their expenses were met from endowments.

During the Mughal period the principal centres of learning were at Lahore,Delhi,Ajmer,Sialkot,Multan,Ahmadabad,Allahabad,Lucknow,Murshidabad,Dacca.Many scholars were attracted to these institutions from Persia and Central Asia. Students received education free of cost. Famous scholars received fixed stipends from the royal treasury.

Provisions were made for the teaching of Persian; the official language of the government in the Maktabs.Nizamiyah system of education became popular during the later days of the Mughals. The aim of this system was to create such ability in the scholar so that he is able to acquire perfection in any branch of learning through self-study and personal efforts. While Muslims received education in Maktabs,Hindus had their pathsalas for imparting religious instructions.

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JUDICIAL & ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM DURING MUGHAL EMPIRES

Introduction :

The Mughal rulers governed India for more than 200 years. They reformed government, encouraged artistry, and tried to unite their subjects. The last Mughal emperors allowed the empire to break apart, however. As a result, the Mughal Empire came to an end, and India came under British control. The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty that lasted for seven generations. They were descended from the Turkic conqueror Timur Lenk and the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan. The empire was founded when a ruler from Turkestan, Baber, raided India, defeated the sultan of Delhi in 1526, and expanded his holdings. The next notable Mughal ruler perhaps the greatest of the dynasty was Baber's grandson Akbar, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. He made the Mughal throne more secure and greatly expanded the empire. India was difficult to rule because it was basically a Hindu culture governed by Muslims and because of the variety of languages and traditions of its people. Akbar succeeded because he reformed the government to make it fairer and allowed Muslims, Hindus, and Christians alike to practice their beliefs. He was also a great promoter of art and learning. To this day certain works dating from the empire are known by such names as Mughal painting, Mughal glass, and Mughal carpets. It was during the reign of Akbar that India entered into relations with Great Britain. Some present-day provincial governments in India and Pakistan are based in part on reforms made more than 300 years ago by Akbar. Akbar's son Jahangir ruled after him (1605-27), and his grandson Shah Jahan (1628-58) followed. Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb (1658-1707) was the last great ruler of the empire. His rule began well, and he brought the Muslim Deccan kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda under Mughal control. He was intolerant of other religions, however, and persecuted the Hindus. This led to rebellions, and the cost of suppressing these rebellions emptied the imperial treasury. When he died, the rulers that followed could not successfully regain control of the land. During the reign of Muhammad Shah (1719-48) the empire began to shrink, and within a few years the Mughals ruled only Delhi and a small area around it. By 1803 the British had taken control. The last Mughal was Bahadur Shah II, whose reign began in 1837. He was expelled from India for taking part in a mutiny against the British in 1857 known as the Sepoy Revolt.

Dateline: 1526AD-1857AD :
India had been without a major empire for almost a thousand years now, it had not been since the Gupta Dynasty that an all India empire had been created. The Mughal Dynasty was the last great empire of Indian history. Such was their greatness that not only did they leave a lasting impact on Indian history, the English word Mogul (derived from Mughal) means a powerful person. The Mughals were a remarkable dynasty, and at their peak they produced a successive set of capable rulers. It was also during their reign that some of the finest monuments of India were built, most notably one of the seven wonders of the world, the Taj Mahal.

The Mughal dynasty was founded by Babur, who was a ruler of a kingdom near Persia (modern day Iran). Babur a Turk, was related to the great Mongol conqueror, Chengiz Khan and the Turkish invader Timur. The increasing power of the Uzbeks of Central Asia, was a cause for Babur to want to leave his country. The Delhi Sultanate around this time existed merely in name, and the political scene was in total disarray. The Sultan in power was Ibrahim Lodi, but the nobles commanded a major portion of power. The entire system was very unstable, and finally it cracked. Daulat Khan, a powerful noble who was dissatisfied with Ibrahim Lodi actually requested Babur to come and invade India. Babur had long cherished a desire to conquer India, and he immediately grabbed the opportunity. He first conquered Afghanistan and then descended into India. His campaigns though initially faced some hiccups, turned out very successful and he captured a large section of North Western India. He then proceeded to Delhi where he fought the last remaining Sultanate ruler, Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat. Ibrahim Lodi possessed a much larger army, but Babur had greater amount of weapons and artillery as well as superb strategy and leadership. In just half a day, he defeated the Sultan and captured Delhi and its surrounding areas. The victory over Ibrahim Lodi however had only a nominal value, for the Sultanate was not a very powerful force in the country. Babur had to face many challenges from various Afghan, Turkish and native Indian rulers before finally he was able to assert his authority over a fairly large area, establishing the foundation of the Mughal empire. In the brief four years that he ruled he set the stage for the great empire. The Mughal empire was not firmly established in his time, in fact shortly after his son Humayun succeeded him, Sher Shah, temporarily threw out the Mughal power and set up his own empire. Upon his death however Humayun returned and re-established the Mughal empire. The greatest Mughal king, Akbar followed and he took the empire to its peak. When we talk of the Mugahl empire we usually refer to the reign of the greater Mughals: Babur, Humayaun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shah Jehan and Aurangzeb. The Mughal empire began to disintegrate during the reign of Aurangzeb and the Mughal emperors after him are collectively referred to as the later Mughals. The Mughal empire would be an important part of Indian history for the next two hundred years, before its disintegration would pave the way for the rise of the British in India.

JUDICIAL & ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM DURING MUGHAL EMPIRES:
Judicial & Administrative system during Mughal empires was matchless, excellent and complete in all senses. Let us have a brief perusal of Mughal system as a whole. Though the Mughal Emperors had absolute powers, they appointed a number of officers in the different departments of the Government for the transaction of its multitudinous affairs. The chief departments of the State were:

(a) the Imperial House-hold under the Khan-i-saman,

(b) the Exchequer under the Deccan

(c) the Military Pay & Accounts office under the Mir Bakshi

(d) the Judiciary under the Chief Qazi,

(e) Religious Endowments and charities under the Chief Sadr or Sadr-us-Sudur, and

(f) the Censorship of Public Morals under the Muhtasib. The Diwan or wazir was usually the highest officer in the state, being sole incharge of revenues and finance, The Bakhshi discharged a variety of functions. While he was the Pay-master-General of all the officers of the State, who "theoretically belonged to the military department he was also responsible for the recruiting of the army, and for maintaining lists of mansabdars and other high officials, and when preparing, for a battle he has a complete muster-roll of the army before the Emperor. The Khan-i-Saman or the Lord High Steward had charge of the whole imperial house-hold "in reference

to both great and small things". The Muhtamibs or Censors of Public Morals

looked after the enforcement of the prophet's commands and the laws of

morality. The other officers, somewhat inferior in status to those mentioned

above, the Mir Atish or Daroga-i-Topkhana (head of the artillery), the Daroga of Dak Chowki (the correspondence department). the Daroga of the Mint, the Mir Mai or the Lord Privy Seal, the Mustayfi or the Auditer- General air the Nazir~i-luyulat or the Superintendent of the Imperial workshop, the Mushriff or the Revenue Secretary, the Mir bahri or the Lord of the Admiralty, the Mir Barr or the Superintendent of forests, the or News Reporters the Mir arz or the charge of petitions presented to the Emperor, the Mir Manzil or the Quarter master General, and the Mir Tezak or the Master of Cerensnies. We shall discuss first police, then Judicial and revenue system.

(l) The Police so far as the rural areas were concerned, Mughals introduced no new arrangement for the prevention and detection and crimes. These as from time immemorial under the headman of the village and his subordinate watchmen. The system, which afforded a fair degree of security in the local areas with only occasional disturbances in times of disorder, survived till the beginning of the nineteenth century. In the cities and towns, all police duties including the task of maintaining : order and decency, were entrusted to the, whose duties, as enumerated in the Ain-i AKbari, were multi farious (i) to detect thieves, (ii) to regulate prices and check weights measures, (iii) to keep watch at night and the City, (iv) to keep up registers of houses, frequented roads, and of citizens and watch the movements of strangers, (v) to employ spies from the vaga bands, gather information about the affairs of the neighbouring villages and the income expenditure of the various classes of people, (vi) To prepare aninventory of, and take charge of, the property of deceased or missing persons who left be heirs, (vii) to prevent the slaughter buffales, of oxen, bourses or camaels, and (viii) to prevent the burning of women Gainst their win,and circumcision below the age of twelve Sir J.N.Sarkar believes that this long list of the duties in the Ain represents " only the ideal the Kotwali" and not" the actual State But Mailed age gives from personal observation an exhaustive account of the Kotwals duties. It is,

however, certain that the Xotwali's main business was to preserve peace and

public security in the urba areas. In the districts or Sarkars, law and order were maintained usually by officers like the Faujddars "The faujddar, as his name suggests, was only the commander of a military force stationed in the country. He had to put down smaller rebellions, disperse or arrest robber gangs, take of all violent crimes, demonstrations of force to overawe, opposition to the revenue authorities, or the criminal judge, or the censor". The police arrangements were in some respects effective, though " the State of public security varied greatly from place to place and from time to time.

Economic system of mughal period:
Agriculture continued to remain an important part of the economy, but the crops and techniques still remained largely unchanged. Irrigation was largely absent although some areas did have access to canals and water works. A variety of food and cash crops were grown. The textile industry was booming and hence there was tremendous demand for cotton and silk which were important cash crops. Tobacco, introduced sometime in 1604 also became an important cash crop. One negative aspect of the Mughal administration was that they did not make any major efforts in agricultural development. Hence the citizens were subject to various famines, which had devastating results. With no assistance from the centre, the situation was usually grim. Quite often severe famines led to large scale migration of the population within the empire, and in some cases they even left India. Some Mughal emperors did try initiatives to alleviate the problems, but most of the time it was a case of too little too late. These famines had a detrimental effect on the economy.

Industry had been developing and by the Mughal period was very diversified and involved a large number of people. The range and volume of products manufactured by Indian industries was very large, catering to not only a large domestic demand but also to a large international demand. The most important industry of this period was that of making cotton cloth. Several cotton manufacturing units were scattered across the country, catering to a huge demand. Bengal was renowned for its fine quality silk and cotton cloth. In fact it was said, that the amount of cloth produced in Bengal was more than most of the kingdoms of India and Europe put together. With the cloth industry so successful, the dyeing was also doing very well. Shawl and carpet weaving were also important industries, receiving major patronage during the time of Akbar. The ship building industry also remained important, although India was no longer a major maritime country. The State, while encouraging Industry did not directly support it financially, a task undertaken by various middlemen. This was regrettable, for the industrialists were often exploited by such middlemen. They were also exploited by corrupt nobles and officers who often forced them to sell goods at low prices. The irony of the situation was that although the craftsmen were being deprived of the fair value of their commodities, it was because of the nobles and officers that there was a demand for the work they produced. The nobles and officers having fine tastes encouraged the development of high quality work.

Currency also began to develop with the return of a stable power. Standardized coins were issued in gold, silver and copper. The coins were of superb quality and often had interesting artistic designs. The important matter ofcourse was that currency was now seen as a reliable method of exchange, with the Mughal coins being a respected unit of value.

India had flourishing trade relations with many parts of the world, with foreign trade being an important part of the Indian economy. The chief Indian imports of the time were, raw silks, gold, ivory, precious stones, perfumes, horses and slaves. Chief exports included textiles, spices, opium and indigo. The land routes usually went via Afghanistan, but land transportation was not very safe or reliable. River and sea transport were the popular choices. Customs duties during the period were very low, it was approximately 3.5% on all imports and exports. European traders were also beginning to play an important role in Indian trade, with many of them setting up warehouses and distribution points in the empire. Most European goods however were affordable only by the rich.

Education system of Mughal Period:
Under the Mughal rule special attention was given to education. During the Akbar’s reign important changes were introduced in the syllabus of education through the efforts of Shah Fathullah Shirazi.Islamic schools were attached to mosques, Khanqah of the Sufis and tombs. Special buildings were also constructed for imparting education. Their expenses were met from endowments.

During the Mughal period the principal centres of learning were at Lahore,Delhi,Ajmer,Sialkot,Multan,Ahmadabad,Allahabad,Lucknow,Murshidabad,Dacca.Many scholars were attracted to these institutions from Persia and Central Asia. Students received education free of cost. Famous scholars received fixed stipends from the royal treasury.

Provisions were made for the teaching of Persian; the official language of the government in the Maktabs.Nizamiyah system of education became popular during the later days of the Mughals. The aim of this system was to create such ability in the scholar so that he is able to acquire perfection in any branch of learning through self-study and personal efforts. While Muslims received education in Maktabs,Hindus had their pathsalas for imparting religious instructions.

Conclusion:
There are many facets to the Mughal Empire in India but most Muslims and other scholars have describe it as a glorious period in Indian History, but it was in many respects, for most parts, far from it.

It is wrong not to recognize and learn from history as it is; instead of ignoring it as have been the case in Pakistan for most of its existence and a short period in India. European and many Indian scholars view history of India from tenth to nineteenth centuries using the colonial mindset.

The most glaring omission that most historians and learned commentators make is to ignore destruction of Hindu India’s educational infrastructure by Muslims rulers of India starting with the Sultanate period (tenth to thirteenth centuries) and concluding with the Mughal period (sixteenth to nineteenth centuries). Not a single center of education was established by Muslims during almost nine hundred years as rulers of parts of India!

A mix of Wahabi and Deobandi followers in Pakistan are responsible for perpetuating political insecurities of South Asia and unleashing terrorism on a global scale by adopting fascism with a face of Islam propagated by radical and fundamentalist clerics, power-hungry autocrats and elites obsessed with inferiority of Muslim political power.

Isn’t it a South Asia tragedy that today’s generation is paying a price for neglect of education in India (or South Asia if that’s what Muslims prefer to call the area after partition,) for over nine hundred years, not to mention that many scholars have made cases to demonstrate a link in the decline of Muslim and Hindu powers in India and their woefully inadequate scholarship in areas of math, sciences and philosophy.

With the exception of Muslim and Hindu trading communities, all across South Asia the ghettoisation of the Muslim community and that of India’s disadvantaged lower castes is attributable to backwardness that came with a lack of adequate education to empower these segments of South Asians with a critical mass of creative-thinkers. Lacking creative-thinking abilities, semi- and uneducated masses develop blind faith. If you have good skills but for some reason are not motivated to deploy them – as is the case with South Asians of questionable scholarship, - you will reach conclusions and make decisions no more rationally than someone without those skills. One only needs to listen to the fundamentalist and radical clerics of any faith to see how blind faith can lead to disastrous consequences. People with a belief system that has stayed frozen in the past continue to live with blind faith in a cycle of generation of poverty and dream of premodern utopia.

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Salient Features of the Constitution of Bangladesh

Salient Features of the Constitution of Bangladesh

1. Written Constitution: The Constitution of the Peoples’ Republic of Bangladesh is a written document. It was formally adopted by a Constituent Assembly on a specific day (4th Nov. 1972). It contains 153 articles, 1 preamble and 4 Schedules. Members in course of their deliberations. (See page 1 of the Report). I asked Dr. Kamal Hossain if any of them were accepted. He told it was impossible for him to recollect after 26 years if any of them were accepted. He advised me to examine those 98 memorandas. I left no stone unturned to find those memorandas but nobody could give me the trace of those. Though a trace was found in the Record Book of the Constituent Assembly, those memorandas could not found, for parliament building was transferred to the present one and a huge number of documents of the erstwhile East Pakistan Assembly and of the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh particularly those documents which were not tabled in the Assembly or House have been all heaped up in a store room of parliament and these are yet to be ordered and arranged.

2. Rigid Constitution: The Constitution of Bangladesh is a rigid one since on provision of it can be amended by ordinary lawmaking procedure; an amendment can be passed only by votes of not less than two thirds of the total number of members of parliament.

3. Preamble: The Constitution of Bangladesh starts with a preamble which is described as the guiding star of the Constitution. This very preamble contains the legal as well as the moral basis of the Constitution; it also identifies the objectives and aims of the state.1

4. Supremacy of the Constitution: Constitutional supremacy has been ensured in the Constitution of Bangladesh. Because article 7 (2) provides that “This Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and if any other law is inconsistent with this Constitution that other law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void.

5. Unitary Governmental System: Article 1 of the Constitution provides that Bangladesh is a unitary peoples’ republic as opposed to federal republic. Governmental system is a unitary one since all power under the constitution has centralized to a unitary government; no division of power has been provided for in the Constitution unlike in federal constitutions.

6. Unicameral Legislature: Article 65 of the Constitution provides for a unicameral legislature for Bangladesh It is only one House to be known as the House of the Nation. Like Indian legislature it is not composed of upper House and lower House. Laws made by the parliament are equally applicable to the whole territory of Bangladesh.

7. Fundamental Principles of State Policy: Article 8 of the Constitution provides for four major fundamental principles of state policy. They are (i) Nationalism, (ii) Democracy, (iii) Socialism; and (iv) Seculatrism. All other principles derived from these four shall also constituted the fundamental principles of state policy.

8. Fundamental Rights: Part-III of the Constitution provides for 18 fundamental rights. The enjoyment and enforcement of these rights have been guaranteed in the Constitution. The Supreme Court has been invested with the task to protect these rights. No authority can make any law which is inconsistent with the provisions of fundamental rights and any law so made shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.

9. Parliamentary form of Government: The Constitution of Bangladesh provides for a Westminster type of parliamentary system. This form of government, in other words, cabinet form of government is run by a cabinet of Ministers headed by the prime Minister and the cabinet as a whole has to be responsible to the parliament and can remain in power so long it enjoys the confidence of the majority members of the parliament. President becomes a titular head: the real executive power is exercised by the cabinet. The 1972’s Constitution of Bangladesh provided, more or less, all the trappings of parliamentary form of government.

10. Independence of Judiciary: The Constitution of 1972 ensured the independence of judiciary.

Firstly, provision was made that the Chief Justice would be appointed by the president and other justices of the Supreme Court would be appointed after consultation with the Chief Justice (Art. 95). Appointment of subordinate judges and magistrates was also to be exercised with consultation of the supreme Court.

Secondly, a judge could not be removed from his office except by an order of the President passed pursuant of a resolution of parliament supported by a majority of not less than two thirds of the total number of members of parliament. Again, the security of tenure of the subordinate judges was vested in the Supreme Court.

Thirdly, it was provided that the remuneration, privileges and other terms and conditions of service of judges could not be varied to their disadvantages and the salaries of the judges were charged upon the Consolidated Fund of the Republic. Again, the control (including the power of posting, promotion and grant of leave) and discipline of persons employed in the judicial service and magistrates exercising judicial functions was vested in the Supreme Court.

Thus the entire judiciary except some aspects of magistrate’s courts was made independent.

11. Ombudsman: Provisions for the establishment of an ombudsman were inserted in Article 77. To provide machinery to overview the activities of civil bureaucracy, to eradicate corruption in the administration and to ensure the responsibility of the government in a more specific way the role of an ombudsman like a citizen’s defender or watch dog has been successful in some countries. Though the office has not yet been implemented in Bangladesh, the incorporation in the Constitution of such an office reflected the desire of the Awami League to strengthen the functioning of democracy in the country.

12. Responsible Government was not ensured: Though the 1972’s Constitution of Bangladesh provided for the Westminster type of parliamentary form of government it could not ensure, due to some of its repressive provisions, the conditions of responsible government. A cabinet form of government is directly responsible to the parliament in the sense that the cabinet as a whole has to be accountable to the parliament and an individual minister has to be responsible in respect of his departmental administration. In the Constitution of Bangladesh, there is no provision for ensuring the individual responsibility of ministers. Though Article 55 (3) provides that ‘the cabinet shall be collectively responsible to the parliament’ this responsibility cannot be ensured in practice due to the barricade created by Article 70 of the Constitution. 

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Nature of the Bangladesh Constitution

Nature of the Bangladesh Constitution

Bangladesh constitution is the written constitution. It is the adopt by constituted committee. The commute chairmen was Dr. Kamal hosen and there hast 34 member of that committee. There have one preamble. Pour schedule and 153 Articles. There are 15amesdment of the constitution. If any law is contradictory with constitution that time constitution is acceptable and law is voidable. Constitutional supremacy is possible only where the constitution is written and rigid. This constitutional supremacy is also called judiciary the height court of the land is supreme over the legislature

Article 7 states “All powers in the Republic belong to the people, and their exercise on behalf of the people shall be effected only under, and by the authority of, this Constitution. This constitution is, as the solemn expression of the will of the people, the supreme law of the Republic, and if any other law is inconsistent with this Constitution that other law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void.”

Article 26 states that “All existing law inconsistent with the provisions of this part (i.e. fundamental rights) shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, become void on the commencement with the provisions of this part, and any law so made shall to the extent of such inconsistency be void.

Article 65 states that the legislative powers of the Republic shall, subject to the provisions of this Constitution, be vested to the parliament.

Salient Features of the Constitution of Bangladesh

1. Written Constitution: The Constitution of the Peoples’ Republic of Bangladesh is a written document. It was formally adopted by a Constituent Assembly on a specific day (4th Nov. 1972). It contains 153 articles, 1 preamble and 4 Schedules. Members in course of their deliberations. (See page 1 of the Report). I asked Dr. Kamal Hossain if any of them were accepted. He told it was impossible for him to recollect after 26 years if any of them were accepted. He advised me to examine those 98 memorandas. I left no stone unturned to find those memorandas but nobody could give me the trace of those. Though a trace was found in the Record Book of the Constituent Assembly, those memorandas could not found, for parliament building was transferred to the present one and a huge number of documents of the erstwhile East Pakistan Assembly and of the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh particularly those documents which were not tabled in the Assembly or House have been all heaped up in a store room of parliament and these are yet to be ordered and arranged.

2. Rigid Constitution: The Constitution of Bangladesh is a rigid one since on provision of it can be amended by ordinary lawmaking procedure; an amendment can be passed only by votes of not less than two thirds of the total number of members of parliament.

3. Preamble: The Constitution of Bangladesh starts with a preamble which is described as the guiding star of the Constitution. This very preamble contains the legal as well as the moral basis of the Constitution; it also identifies the objectives and aims of the state.1

4. Supremacy of the Constitution: Constitutional supremacy has been ensured in the Constitution of Bangladesh. Because article 7 (2) provides that “This Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and if any other law is inconsistent with this Constitution that other law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void.

5. Unitary Governmental System: Article 1 of the Constitution provides that Bangladesh is a unitary peoples’ republic as opposed to federal republic. Governmental system is a unitary one since all power under the constitution has centralized to a unitary government; no division of power has been provided for in the Constitution unlike in federal constitutions.

6. Unicameral Legislature: Article 65 of the Constitution provides for a unicameral legislature for Bangladesh It is only one House to be known as the House of the Nation. Like Indian legislature it is not composed of upper House and lower House. Laws made by the parliament are equally applicable to the whole territory of Bangladesh.

7. Fundamental Principles of State Policy: Article 8 of the Constitution provides for four major fundamental principles of state policy. They are (i) Nationalism, (ii) Democracy, (iii) Socialism; and (iv) Seculatrism. All other principles derived from these four shall also constituted the fundamental principles of state policy.

8. Fundamental Rights: Part-III of the Constitution provides for 18 fundamental rights. The enjoyment and enforcement of these rights have been guaranteed in the Constitution. The Supreme Court has been invested with the task to protect these rights. No authority can make any law which is inconsistent with the provisions of fundamental rights and any law so made shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.

9. Parliamentary form of Government: The Constitution of Bangladesh provides for a Westminster type of parliamentary system. This form of government, in other words, cabinet form of government is run by a cabinet of Ministers headed by the prime Minister and the cabinet as a whole has to be responsible to the parliament and can remain in power so long it enjoys the confidence of the majority members of the parliament. President becomes a titular head: the real executive power is exercised by the cabinet. The 1972’s Constitution of Bangladesh provided, more or less, all the trappings of parliamentary form of government.

10. Independence of Judiciary: The Constitution of 1972 ensured the independence of judiciary.

Firstly, provision was made that the Chief Justice would be appointed by the president and other justices of the Supreme Court would be appointed after consultation with the Chief Justice (Art. 95). Appointment of subordinate judges and magistrates was also to be exercised with consultation of the supreme Court.

Secondly, a judge could not be removed from his office except by an order of the President passed pursuant of a resolution of parliament supported by a majority of not less than two thirds of the total number of members of parliament. Again, the security of tenure of the subordinate judges was vested in the Supreme Court.

Thirdly, it was provided that the remuneration, privileges and other terms and conditions of service of judges could not be varied to their disadvantages and the salaries of the judges were charged upon the Consolidated Fund of the Republic. Again, the control (including the power of posting, promotion and grant of leave) and discipline of persons employed in the judicial service and magistrates exercising judicial functions was vested in the Supreme Court.

Thus the entire judiciary except some aspects of magistrate’s courts was made independent.

11. Ombudsman: Provisions for the establishment of an ombudsman were inserted in Article 77. To provide machinery to overview the activities of civil bureaucracy, to eradicate corruption in the administration and to ensure the responsibility of the government in a more specific way the role of an ombudsman like a citizen’s defender or watch dog has been successful in some countries. Though the office has not yet been implemented in Bangladesh, the incorporation in the Constitution of such an office reflected the desire of the Awami League to strengthen the functioning of democracy in the country.

12. Responsible Government was not ensured: Though the 1972’s Constitution of Bangladesh provided for the Westminster type of parliamentary form of government it could not ensure, due to some of its repressive provisions, the conditions of responsible government. A cabinet form of government is directly responsible to the parliament in the sense that the cabinet as a whole has to be accountable to the parliament and an individual minister has to be responsible in respect of his departmental administration. In the Constitution of Bangladesh, there is no provision for ensuring the individual responsibility of ministers. Though Article 55 (3) provides that ‘the cabinet shall be collectively responsible to the parliament’ this responsibility cannot be ensured in practice due to the barricade created by Article 70 of the Constitution.

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ESSENTIAL SKILL A PERSON SHOULD DEVELOP TO BE A SUCCESSFUL ENGINEER

ESSENTIAL SKILL A PERSON SHOULD DEVELOP TO BE A SUCCESSFUL ENGINEER

success has been an issue broadly discussed by different approaches some say that being successful means being wealthy. others associate success with popularity and power .so we come to the questions ``Whet skills make success easier to achieve ?”. Engineering is a rapidly growing filed that has taken on a great amount of importance in the modern world. I consider that someone is really successful when that person is able to handle and enjoy social relationships. peveloping social abilities may be a very helpful skill for a person to engineer, in order to be successful in the social emotional side of his or her life. Engineers might specialize in designing engines, automobiles, consumer products, electronics, or heavy machinery. There are several important technical and personal skills that an individual looking for mechanical engineer employment should possess, A successful engineer is creative, efficient, detail oriented, and mechanically inclined. He or she must be a master of computer design and have specialized knowledge of physics and electricity in order to produce efficient, reliable mahines. Many different personal traits and skills are necessary to secure engineer employment, professionals need to have strong problem solving skills in order to invent. Most engineers need to possess strong communication skills as well, as they are frequently required to work in teams with other engineers. Professionals also need strong educational backgrounds in math and physics to help them calculate statistics and determine the most efficient ways of putting machines together. Generally enjoy many advancement opportunities within manufacturing companies and engineering firms. 

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International Business

THE POLITICAL AND LEGAL ENVIRONMENTS FACING BUSINESS

The legal/political aspect is very important in global marketing. "International law" can be defined as rules and principles that states and nations consider binding upon themselves. This raises two interesting characteristics of international law. The first is that "law" belongs to individual nations and international law only exists to the degree that individual nations are willing to relinquish their rights. The second is the lack of an adequate international judicial and administrative framework or a body of law which would form the basis of a truly comprehensive international legal system.

The international business is also subject to political decrees made by governments both in "home" and "host" countries. Home governments can apply pressure not to deal with disapproved parties. These measures may take the refusal to grant an export license, or withdrawal of export guarantee cover. The host government may take measures like taxation, ownership controls, operating restrictions or expropriation.

Factors affecting Political Environment:
1. The Sovereignty of Nations:
In the context of international law, a sovereign state is independent and free from all external control; enjoys full legal equality with other states; governs its own territory; selects its own political, economic, and social systems; and has the power to enter into agreements with other nations. Sovereignty refers to both the powers exercised over its own members. A state sets requirements for citizenship, defines geographical boundaries, and controls trade and the movement of people and goods across its borders. Additionally, a citizen is subject to the state’s laws even when eyond national borders. It is with the extension of national laws beyond a country’s borders that much of the conflict in international business arises.

The ideal political climate for a multinational firm is a stable, friendly government. Unfortunately, governments are not always stable and friendly. Sometimes, changes in attitudes and goals can cause a stable and friendly situation to become risky. Changes are brought about by any number of events. The stability and friendliness of the govt. in each country must be assessed as an ongoing business practice.

2. Stability of Government Policies:
Governments might change or new political parties might be elected, but the concern of the multinational corporation is the continuity of the set of rules or code of behavior and the continuation of the rule of law – regardless of which government is in power. A change in government, whether by election or coup, does not always mean a change in the level of political risk.

If there is potential for profit and if permitted to operate within a country, multinational companies can function under any type of government as long as there is some long-run predictability and stability.

3. Political Parties:
Particularly important to the marketer is knowledge of the philosophies of all major political parties within a country, since any one of them might become dominant and alter prevailing attitudes. In those countries where there are two strong political parties that typically succeed one another in control of the government. It is important to know the direction each party is likely to take.

Changes in direction that a country may take toward trade and related issues are caused not only by political parties with differing philosophies but also by politically strong interest groups and factions within different political parties that cooperate to affect trade policy. An astute marketer must understand all the aspects of the political landscape to be properly informed about the political environment.

4. Nationalism:
Economic Nationalism, which exists to some degree within all countries, is another factor important in assessing business climate. Nationalism can best be described as an intense feeling of national pride and unity, an awakening of a nation’s people to pride in their country. This pride can take an anti-foreign business bias, and minor harassment and controls of foreign investment are supported, if not applauded. Economic nationalism has as one of its central aims the preservation of natural economic autonomy in that residents identify their interests with the preservation of the sovereignty of the state in which they reside. In other words, national interest and security are more important than international considerations.

Feelings of nationalism are manifested in a variety of ways, including a call to “buy our country’s products only”, restrictions on imports, restrictive tariffs, and other barriers to trade. They may also lead to control over foreign investment, often regarded with suspicion, which then becomes the object of intensive scrutiny and control. Generally speaking, the more a country feels threatened by some outside force, the more nationalistic it becomes in protecting itself against the intrusion.

5. Political Sanctions:
One or a group of nations may boycott another nation, thereby stopping all trade between the countries, or may issue sanctions against the trade of specific products. The US has long-term boycotts of trade with Cuba, Iran, and Libya.

6. Political and Social Activists:
Although not usually officially sanctioned by the government, the impact of political and social activists (PSAs) can also interrupt the normal flow of trade. PSAs can range from those who seek to bring about peaceful change to those who resort to violence and terrorism to affect change. When well organized, the actions of PSAs can be effective.

7. Violence and Terrorism:
Although not usually government initiated, violence is another related risk for multinational companied to consider in assessing the political vulnerability of their activities. Terrorism has many different goals. Multinationals are targeted to embarrass a government and its relationship with firms, to generate funds by kidnapping executives to finance terrorist foals, and to use as pawns in political or social disputes not specifically directed at them.

Political Risks of Global Business:
Risks can range from confiscation, the harshest, to many lesser but still significant government rules and regulations such as exchange controls, import restrictions, and price controls that directly affect the performance of business activities. Although not always officially blessed initially, social or political activist groups can provoke governments into action that proves harmful to a business. Of all political risks, the most costly are those actions that result in a transfer of equity from the company to the government, with or without adequate compensation.

The most severe political risk is confiscation, that is, the seizing of a company’s assets without payment. The two most notable recent confiscations of US property occurred when Fidel Castro became the leader in Cuba and later when the Shah of Iran was overthrown.

Less drastic, but still severe, is expropriation, which requires some reimbursement for the government-seized investment. A third type of risk is domestication, which occurs when host countries take steps to transfer foreign investments to national control and ownership through a series of government decrees. Government seeks to domesticate foreign held assets by mandating:

· A transfer of ownership in part or totally to nationals
· The promotion of a large number of nationals to higher levels of management
· Greater decision-making powers resting with nationals
· A greater number of component products locally produced
· Specific export regulations designed to dictate participation in world markets.

The ultimate goal of domestication is to force foreign investors to share more of the ownership and management with nationals than was the case before domestication.

A change in government attitudes, policies, economic plans, or philosophy concerning the role of foreign investment in national economic and social goals is behind the decision to confiscate, expropriate, or domesticate existing foreign assets.

Assessing political vulnerability
Political vulnerability should be assessed by using a systematic checklist. Such a checklist should include the following:

 The firm's own country's relations with other countries
 Sensitivity of the product or industry
 Size and location of operation - the bigger the more vulnerable
 Visibility of firm - is it high profile say via advertising?
 Host country's political situation
 Company behavior - is it a good corporate citizen?
 Contribution to host country, for example, employment
 Localisation of operations
 Subsidiary dependence.

The legal environment
As indicated in the introduction to this section, the international legal framework is somewhat confused. Most controls or regulations revolve around export and import controls, transfer pricing, taxes, regulation of corrupt practices, embargoed nations, antitrust, expropriation and distribution of equity, patents and trademarks. The following touches on a number of these issues and in particular the import/export regulations (terms of access).

Bases for Legal Systems:
Three heritages form the bases for the majority if the legal systems of the world: (1) Common Law, derived from English law and found in England, the United States, Canada, and other countries once under English influence; (2) Civil or Code law, derive from Roman law and found in Germany, Japan, France and in non-Islamic and non-Marxist countries; and (3) Islamic law, derived from the interpretation of the Koran and found in Iran, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and other Islamic states. A fourth heritage for a commercial legal system is the Marxist-Socialist economies of Russia and the republics of the former Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and other Marxist-socialist states whose legal system centered on the economic, political, and social policies of the state. As such country moves toward its own version of a free market system and enters the global market; a commercial legal system is also evolving from those Marxist-socialist tenets.

The differences among these four systems are of more than theoretical importance, because due process of law may vary considerably among and within these legal systems. Even though a country’s laws may be based on the doctrine of one of the four legal systems, its individual interpretation may vary significantly- from a fundamentalist interpretation of Islamic law as found in Pakistan to a combination of several legal systems found in the United States, where both common and code law are reflected in the laws.

The basis for common law is tradition, past practices, and legal precedents set by the courts through interpretations of statutes, legal legislation, and past rulings. Common law seeks “interpretation through the past decisions of higher courts which interpret the same statutes or apply established and customary principles of law to a similar set of facts”. Code law, on the other hand, is based on all-inclusive system of written rules of law. Under code law, the legal system is generally divided into three separate codes: commercial, civil, and criminal.

Common law is recognized as not being all-inclusive, whereas code law is considered complete as a result of catchall provisions found in most code law systems.

The implications of international law on marketing operations are legion. The principle ones are as follows:
 Product decisions - physical, chemical, safety, performance, packaging, labelling, warranty

 Pricing decisions - price controls, resale price maintenance, price freezes, value added systems and taxation

 Distribution - contracts for agents and distribution, physical distribution, insurance

 Promotion - advertising codes of practice, product restriction, sales promotion and,

 Market research - collection, storage and transmission of data.

Other areas affected are obviously in currency and payments but these will be dealt with in later sections. 

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Small & Medium Enterprise (SME)

Small & Medium Enterprise (SME)

Bangladesh is a densely populated country. Job opportunity here is very scanty; Unemployment rate is approximately 40%. Population below poverty line is 36%. Therefore, it is the prime concern for the nation to generate income through creation of job opportunity & employment. Creation of job opportunity at large scale by us is not possible. What can be done better is to help self-employment through financial support. There are many small and medium entrepreneurs in the country that have innovative idea, spirit and potentiality to do something productive for local consumers as well as export abroad.

Objective 0f SME Loan:
To provide credit facilities to the small and medium size entrepreneurs located in Urban & Sub-urban areas and easily accessible by our Branches.

To encourage the new and educated young entrepreneurs to undertake productive venture and demonstrate their creativity and thereby participate in the national development. To flow credit for creation of employment and generation of income on a sustainable basis through development of small & medium enterprises.

To assist potential entrepreneurs to take part in economic activities so that they can improve their living standard.

To reduce dependence on money lenders;

To make the small & medium enterprises self– reliant;

To develop saving habit and making acquaintance with banking facilities.

To inspire for undertaking small projects for creation employment through income generating activities.

Concepts:
Small Enterprise
Small Enterprise refers to those enterprises: -
Where goods are produced, recycled, repaired or traded in traditional way;
Where total bank investment is limited to Tk.250,000;
Where 10 or less workers are engaged on wages or commission basis;

Medium Enterprise
Medium Enterprise refers to those enterprises:-
Where goods are produced, recycled, repaired or traded applying some capital machinery;
Where 20 or less people are engaged on wages or commission basis;
Where total bank investment does not exceed Tk.75, 00,000.
The net fixed assets (excluding land and buildings) of borrowers may not exceed Tk. equivalent of US $250,000.

Selection Procedure of SME Loan:

Ø CONSIDERING FACTORS FOR ENTERPRISE SELECTION
The success of SME will largely depend on the selection of a business and the man behind it. In terms of the business (enterprise), the following attributes should be sought:

1. The business must be in operation for at least two year.

2. The business should be legally registered, i.e. must have valid license of two years old, income tax or VAT registration, whatever applicable.

3. The business should be involved in legal trade, i.e. smuggling will not be allowed or socially unacceptable business will not be entertained.

4. The business must have a defined market with a clear potential for growth.

5. The business must be located ideally close to the market and the source of its raw materials/supplies. It should have access to all the utilities, skilled manpower that are required.

6. Any risk assessed by the management in turn will become a credit risk for the Bank; so effort should be made to understand the risks faced by the business.

Ø CONSIDER FACTORS FOR ENTERPRENEUR SELECTION CRITERIA
In order to understand the capability of the management behind the business, the following should be assessed:

1. Must be literate.

The entrepreneur should be physically able and in good health, preferably

2. between age 21-60. If he is an elderly person closer to 60, it should be seen what the succession process will be and whether it is clearly defined or not.

3. The entrepreneur must have the necessary technical skills to run the business, i.e. academic background or vocational training, relevant work experience in another institution or years of experience in this line of business.

4. the entrepreneur must have acceptable social standing in the community (people should speak highly of him), he should possess a high level of integrity (does not cheat anyone, generally helps people) and morally sound (participants in community building)

5. The entrepreneur must possess a high level of commitment and enthusiasm and should demonstrate that he is in control of his business (confidently replies to all queries) and has the ability to take up new and fresh challenges to take the business forward.

6. Suppliers or creditors should corroborate that he pays on time and genial in nature.

7. Clear-cut indication of sources of income and reasonable ability and intention to save.

Ø CONSIDERING FACTORS FOR GUARANTOR SELECTION
Equally important is the selection of a Guarantor. The same attributes applicable for an Entrepreneur are applicable to a Guarantor. In addition he should possess the following:

1. The guarantor should be physically able and in good health, preferably between age of 18 -60.

2. the Guarantor must have the ability to repay the entire loan and is economically solvent (check his net worth)

3. The Guarantor should be aware about all the aspects of SME loan and his responsibility.

Govt. and semi-govt. officials can be selected as a Guarantor such as

4. schoolteachers, college teachers, doctors etc.

5. The Guarantor should know the entrepreneur reasonably well and should preferably live in the same community.

6. The value of assets of the guarantor must at least be 125% of the loan amount.

When a person will be a guarantor of a loan of SME, Prime Bank, she/he will not permitted to take loan from this department; a person cannot be guarantor for more than one loan of his department.

Ø Sahaj Rin (Collateral Free Loan)

Sahaj Rin provides you an easy to access loan facility to successfully grow your small & medium enterprise business.

Ø Sampad Rin (Capital Loan)
Sampad Rin offers you the loan facility to augment capital base for your business expansion, purchase of new business space or expansion of existing outlets and capital machineries and also to purchase light or heavy vehicles for business use.

Key Features Loan facility for business expansion, purchase of new business space or expansion of existing outlets and capital machineries and also to purchase light or heavy vehicles for business use.

Ø Chalti Rin (Working Capital Loan)
Chalti Rin offers you the loan facility to increase the working capital base by financing day to day business of your Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) business.

Ø Moushami Rin (Seasonal Loan)
Moushami Rin offers you the loan facility to grab the additional opportunities in various festivals and seasonal events (i.e. Eids, Pujas, Christmas, Bengali and English New Year etc.) by organizing special business arrangements to increase sales and profit for your.

Ø Digun Rin (Double Loan)
Prime Bank's Digun Rin helps you to avoid encashing your long held saving and provide you the required capital for your business operation. Under this SME product, if you offer any encashable security i.e. FDR, you will be entitled to receive double amount of the value of security provided.

Ø Anchol (Women Entrepreneurs' Loan)
Anchol is the credit facility for the women entrepreneurs to expand and operate their businesses at desired level.

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Importance of Technology in Business

Importance of Technology in Business
Technology plays a vital role in business. Over the years business have become dependent on technology so much. Technology played a key role in the growth of commerce and trade around the world. Almost all business are dependent on technology on all levels from research and development, Production and all the way to delivery.

Technology used in many sector to Business.
Agriculture Sector.
Banking Sector.
Transportation Sector.
Insurance Industry Sector.
Education Sector.

Technology in Agriculture Sector
New technologies are mocking the Profession of farming more efficient, less risky, and less labor intensive.

High Tech Yields
As farm technology makes farming more efficient, small farmers are bosing their ability to compete. In search to profits, industries are automating the entire farming process wing GPS technology. genetically modified crops, automatic irrigation systems, specialized fertilizers, and distributed sensing technologies.

GPS
GPS Systems are becoming more and more useful in large farms. GPS Produced maps, farmers can gain extremely accurate insight into exactly haw their fields behave, and exactly how and where to apply water, fertilizers, soil and herbicides to get the most yield. GPS technology is comfortable tusks for benefit to saving time, saving resources, more evently treating the crop, and Protecting the soil from compaction by heavy machines.

Breeding
Similar to genetic modification and practiced since mach earlier, breeding specialized plants. Accomplishes the same goal with much fewer political difficulties. Through engineering of plants, countries have sun immense success.

Irrigation System
In farming, whoever controls the water has the most power. Water is essential for the success of a crop. There hare been numerous studies to determine the most efficient ways to apply water for maximum yield. Example Oregon state university is currently conducting research on evapotranspiration rates and methods for getting the most out of their water. Optimum formulas and immediate computing of many variables will allow farmers to dynamically determine precise irrigation application. The future of farming involves probes embedded in the soil that determine moisture specific mineral content and other factors.

Weather Analysis
Weather is extrorsely important for farmers. Doppler radar already plays an important role in the livelihood of the farmer, using this technology will allow farmers to make more in formed decisions about their process tike when to plant.

Specialized Fertilizers
Scientists have made a lot progress with fertilizers. Planting nitrogen fixing sesbania azoles are effective. Soil analysis is already being done at the central Analytical labratory at oregon state university

The future of farming is in high technology. Harvesting, planting, fertilizing, and irrigation will all be highly automated and extremely efficient and we can expect to see farmers more familiar with keyboards then with earthworms. The role that technology plays for the business. Sector cannot be taken for grantee. If we were to take away that technology trade and commerce around the world will came stand still

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Economic system in Mughal Period

Economic system in Mughal Period

Agriculture has been mainstay of economy in India since time immemorial. During Mughal time also it was not only the largest source of income to state but it was also the source of livelihood to the large majority of people in India. Main crops that were grown were cereals, millets, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, chilli, indigo and betel.

The Muslim ruling class preferred to settle in the towns and cities. The artistic life style of Mughal ruling clan encouraged handicrafts, art and architecture and trade in India. The merchants and trader class was divided into big business magnates owing hundreds of ships, rich merchants and traders and petty shopkeepers. Hundi system was developed by shroffs for carrying out large transactions. Trade both intra country and outside India grew tremendously during the Mughal period particularly because of the following factors:

Tobacco and potato were introduced by Portuguese in India during Jahangir’s reign. Ajmer was famous for the best quality of sugar cane. Gujarat and Agra was famous for indigo cultivation.Babur introduced many central Asian fruits to India. During Akbar’s reign Firoz Shah’s Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time. In the reign of Shah Jahan,Nahr-i-Bihisht was built by opening the canal at Khizrabad for irrigation purposes.

The political and economic unification of India under the Mughal rule and establishment of law and order over extensive areas created the favorable environment for trade and commerce. The improvement of transport and communications by the Mughals.Encouragement given by the Mughals to the monetization of economy. Arrival of European traders from the beginning of 17th century onwards and the growth of the European trade. Decca was the famous centre of muslin and textiles. Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Lahore were the main centers of silk weaving. Surat, Cambay, Braoch in Gujarat was the main ports for foreign trade.

Education System of Mughal Period
Under the Mughal rule special attention was given to education. During the Akbar’s reign important changes were introduced in the syllabus of education through the efforts of Shah Fathullah Shirazi.Islamic schools were attached to mosques, Khanqah of the Sufis and tombs. Special buildings were also constructed for imparting education. Their expenses were met from endowments.

During the Mughal period the principal centres of learning were at Lahore,Delhi,Ajmer,Sialkot,Multan,Ahmadabad,Allahabad,Lucknow,Murshidabad,Dacca.Many scholars were attracted to these institutions from Persia and Central Asia. Students received education free of cost. Famous scholars received fixed stipends from the royal treasury.

Provisions were made for the teaching of Persian; the official language of the government in the Maktabs.Nizamiyah system of education became popular during the later days of the Mughals. The aim of this system was to create such ability in the scholar so that he is able to acquire perfection in any branch of learning through self-study and personal efforts. While Muslims received education in Maktabs,Hindus had their pathsalas for imparting religious instructions.

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